Beccas Story - 1441 Words

Becca s Story by James D. Forman The Plot: Throughout the story there were several incidents of suspense that revealed the characters. One incident of suspense was when the Confederate army was fighting the Union army at the battle of Gettysburg. Their were brigades along the woods to hold the opposing army off. Alex and Charlie could do nothing but watch because it was such a spectacle. The others were advancing towards the boys and they were silently praying to themselves that they would stop before they reached them. They didn t stop though and the boys had to charge. They were reloading, shooting, tearing cartridges with their teeth, and sheltering. The whole time they were being fired at and dodging the fire. By this time Colonel†¦show more content†¦The Theme: The problem in the story that the author raised or our consideration is whether the war is a good and brave thing or a terrible and cowardly thing. The authors sort of sends mixed messages about the theme of this story. He makes Becca and Alex in favor of the war in the beginning. Becca and Alex felt it was an honorable thing to join the Union but Charlie was scared and didn t like it. But by the end Becca hated the war and the two boys couldn t stay out of it even after they had been wounded and discharged. They just kept going back for more as if it were the right thing to do. I agree with Becca that war is terrible and dangerous and it ruins lives. I would not have agreed with her at the beginning when she thought Charlie was cowardly for not really joining the Union like the other boys in Michigan. The reason I agree with her final thought is because I have learned history and I have seen through books that war is not the resolution to all problems and that it hurts more than it helps. The Historical Aspect: The book takes place during the Civil War (1861-1865). The setting was Jonesville, Michigan. This town made up the seventh infantry along with a lot of other towns too. The book says the Civil War started on April 12, 1861 when the bombardment and capture by the Confederacy of Fort Sumnter. At this time Lincoln was alreadyShow MoreRelatedBriar Rose834 Words   |  4 Pageslayers of narrative in Jane Yolen’s- Briar Rose is highly effective in communicating the story and the story and themes concerning Gemma’s past experiences of the Holocaust and Becca’s quest for truth and fulfilment of her Grandmother’s legacy. Yolen uses a number of voices or accounts of events to give the reader a dramatic sense of the extent and the horror of Gemma’s experiences. The fairytale story, Becca’s quest and Joseph Potocki, all add richness of detail to the novel as a whole. TechniquesRead MoreBriar Rose Essay1325 Words   |  6 Pagesin spires responders through the use of structure, language and other techniques. The novel Briar Rose by Jane Yolen is a heart wrenching story of sleeping beauty intertwined with the horrors of the Jewish Holocaust. The structure of the novel is altered in a way to interweave three stories including Gemmas Briar Rose fairy tale, Beccas quest and Josefs story. The use of language techniques explores the idea of the characters as it gives an understanding of their circumstances and the situationsRead MoreThe Play That I Attended Was Rabbit Hole1402 Words   |  6 Pagesantagonist is Becca’s husband, Howie Corbett. Howie creates conflict with Becca early on by trying to seduce her. This causes a major argument between the two and actually moves them farther apart in their road to recovery. Both characters dealt with the grieving process in their own way, which caused a great deal of tension. The second antagonist is Becca’s sister, Izzy, who creates tension with Becca afte r telling her that she is pregnant. Izzy’s future child is a gateway to memories of Becca’s past, whichRead MoreEnglish Briar Rose Book Analysis4443 Words   |  18 PagesBriar Rose Book Analysis: Antagonist is a person, thing, or force that works against the protagonist, or hero of the story. The antagonist in the novel is Beccas older sisters, Shana and Sylvia. Example: This is crazy, Syl shouted into the phone†. I made a promise, Becca saidRead MoreEvaluation of the Opening of The Ring Essay698 Words   |  3 Pagesvideo is quite chilling in the way it is told, due to Beccas facial expressions and her voice, which is quite eerie. This sets the mood and in a way explains to us the way in which the urban legend is meant to be perceived, as it based around horrific, painful deaths, and the fact that an everyday thing such as a video could kill you. When the film begins, the camera goes back and forward between Katie and Beccas faces as the urban legend is being told. This is to show Read MoreBook Report on Paper Towns by John Green1351 Words   |  6 PagesAuthor: John Green Genre: Young adult novel, mystery Characters: 1.) Quentin â€Å"Q† Jacobsen – He is the protagonist and the one who is telling the story. He is childhood friends and neighbors with Margo, who he also had a crush on ever since they were children. As the years passed, their contact with one another has decreased. As the story progress, he tries to unfold clues he thinks Margo intentionally left for him when she went missing. 2.) Margo Roth Spiegelman – Margo is Quentin’s childhoodRead MoreHow Is Briar Rose Made Memorable Through the Interactions of Ideas and the Way These Ideas Are Represented?2072 Words   |  9 Pagesis through entertainment that a novel is made memorable. The main factor that contributes to achieve a memorable novel is the ability the author has in exemplifying certain ideas as well as the way in which these ideas are embedded throughout the story line. Jane Yolens Briar Rose is made memorable through its complex yet tightly fabricated narrative structure, the unique language of the narrative in the way Yolen relies heavily on irony, the use of effective characterisation, which Yolen manipulatesRead MoreBriar Rose Speech797 Words   |  4 PagesJane Yolen uses many forms and techniques to convey distinctive ideas about the Holocaust, humanity and the power of storytelling. This novel is one that needs to be clearly understood to grasp the true meaning of the story. Yolen uses what could be called a radical structure to get the reader involved with the quest to find out the real history of Briar Rose. Jane Yolen has structured the novel in such a way that it combines the innocence of a fairy tale with the harsh reality of the HolocaustRead MoreDiscuss How Yolen’s Perspective on Personal Discovery Is Conveyed in Briar Rose.979 Words   |  4 PagesBut in the novel Yolen shows the readers it is always better to come out of the wardrobe then to stay hidden and not be found. Becca’s editor Stan says, â€Å"I don’t think you’re going to be happy until you find out who your grandmother was, Becca†. Since Becca was little her grandmother, Gemma, told her stories about Briar Rose. Becca was always interested in these stories. Stan believes that Becca will not be able to know her own identity until she discovers the truth about Gemma’s astonishing claimRead MoreStructure Briar Rose - Jane Yolen992 Words   |  4 Pagesvery effective in conveying her story which she delivers in a superb fashion. Elements of the story are reveled at specific times to tie in with the theme of growth and development both personal and historical. The use of allegory drives the story along. It is a constant reminder of The Holocaust to ensure the reader is not too captivated by the fairy tale element of the novel. The use of allegory grounds the novel, gives it a sense of realism. Whilst the story Yolen tells is fictional the setting

Asleep Analysis (Wilfred Owen) - 1967 Words

Asleep by Wilfred Owen Poem Under his helmet, up against his pack, After so many days of work and waking, Sleep took him by the brow and laid him back. There, in the happy no-time of his sleeping, Death took him by the heart. There heaved a quaking Of the aborted life within him leaping, Then chest and sleepy arms once more fell slack. And soon the slow, stray blood came creeping From the intruding lead, like ants on track. Whether his deeper sleep lie shaded by the shaking Of great wings, and the thoughts that hung the stars, High-pillowed on calm pillows of Gods making, Above these clouds, these rains, these sleets of lead, And these winds scimitars, -Or whether yet his thin and sodden head Confuses more and more with the low mould,†¦show more content†¦Paraphrase: â€Å"intrusive lead† meaning bullet, comparison â€Å"like ants on track† =gt; militaristic, vivid imagery Stanza 2 1. Euphemism: â€Å"deeper sleep† =gt; death, alliteration â€Å"sh† =gt; sound that is very soft and quiet =gt; peacefulness 2. Metaphor: â€Å"shaking of great wings† =gt; angels, connotation of heaven, â€Å"hung the stars† =gt; figurative language makes this very â€Å"poetic† 3. Imagery and personification: â€Å"high-pillowed on calm pillows† not only creates imagery the repetition also adds to the emphasis of the comfort, a stark contrast to the following possibility as to where â€Å"he† went. This is also a metaphor as is demonstrated by the following lines, the calm pillows are in fact â€Å"these clouds†, soft and white. He personifies the pillows as being calm to reinforce the image of tranquility and paradise. 4. Anaphora: repetition of these adds to rhythm and starts the association or war with nature. He uses weather as a metaphor of the weapons, the gas, shells and bullets. The poet associates natural el ements with the unnatural killing-machines created for war, which also creates a contrast. The soldier is above the chaos and the dangers of the battlefield. 5. Metaphor: scimitars = swords, sharp cutting wind like in Exposure =gt; referring to cold perhaps. The soldier is free from these agonies. 6. Opposition with â€Å" Or whether† and imminence â€Å"yet† creates bitterness as suggestsShow MoreRelatedWilfred Owen : The Greatest English Poet During The First World War Poem Summary1358 Words   |  6 Pages Wilfred Owen Wilfred Owen is recognized as the greatest English poet during the First World War. Wilfred Owen notable poems contains the lives and historical records. He wrote out of his intense personal experience as a soldier and wrote with unrivalled power of the physical, moral and psychological trauma of the First World War. From the early age of nineteen, Wilfred Owen wanted to become a poet and immersed himself in poetry, being specially impressed by Keats and Shelly. Wilfred Owen himselfRead MoreThe Soldier By Wilfred Owen1376 Words   |  6 Pagesinhumane devastation that each battle- each moment- causes for the minds and in bodies of every soldier. â€Å"The Soldier† was written by Rupert Brooke in 1914, just before World War One was about to begin, while â€Å"Dulce et Decorum Est.† was written by Wilfred Owen in 1917, during which Word War One was being fought harshly. Due to â€Å"The Soldier† being written before the War began, this poem depicts an idealized pe rception of war in which the subject topically seems honored to die for his country, and contentRead MoreThe Voices Against War By Thomas Hardy1151 Words   |  5 Pagesresistance to Great Britain. Wilfred Owen witnessed first-hand of the horrors of World War I with a price of his life. He wrote poetry vividly describing his treacherous experience on the battlefield. Also Randall Jarrell, served in World War II and used his experience to write an anti-war poem with the imagery of his experience. All of these anti-war poems most be analyzed properly to fully understand how their authors present their message. The conventions used by Hardy, Owen and Jarrell in their respectiveRead MoreWilfred Owen’s Dulce et Decorum Est1100 Words   |  5 PagesLiterary Analysis of Wilfred Owen’s â€Å"Dulce et Decorum Est† The world is a changing place with many different countries and people in those countries who try to change the world from our past, future and present. When looking at poems from the past we are able to see the world through the author’s eyes of the time and possible a view into the future. History tells us to learn from the past to improve the future of our world. A way to learn about the past is by reading poems from a time mostRead MoreAnalysis of Dulce et Decorum Est by Wilfred Owen Essay485 Words   |  2 PagesAnalysis of Dulce et Decorum Est by Wilfred Owen In the poem, Dulce et Decorum Est written by Wilfred Owen, the speaker appears to be a soldier in the army, warning young people eager for war, â€Å"children ardent for some desperate glory,† that war is not what it seems. The soldier explains to the reader through first hand experience that fighting for one’s country is not as glorious a task as it may appear to be. One shouldn’t believe the lie that is told about how itRead MoreThe Movie Park Avenue : Money, Power And The American Dream858 Words   |  4 PagesAvenue: Money, Power and the American Dream† by Director Alex Gibney, an analysis of the true facts behind the ‘American dream’ is presented (Lee). Similarly, the poem â€Å"Dulce et Decorum Est† by Wilfred Owen speaks about the true facts of a war that people foolishly dream to go to for honor (Owen). The two are distinct in the sense of their nature. The first piece by Gibney is a documentary film while the second one by Owen is a poem. For this reason, they apply different strategies to put acrossRead More Dulce et Decorum Est Essay1748 Words   |  7 PagesWilfred Owen’s â€Å"Dulce et Decorum Est† and E. E Cummings’, â€Å"next to of course god america i† are poems that critique patriotic propaganda. Both poems use words and images to effectively depict the influence that patriotic propaganda has on war. â€Å"Dulce et Decorum Est† uses descriptive words to create realistic images of the horrors soldiers are faced with during combat, whereas â€Å"next to of course god america i† uses sarcasm to inform readers that the abuse of propaganda can be used to manipulate othersRead MoreCompare Contrast the Portrayal of War in Dulce Et Decorum Est Charge of the Light Brigade.2305 Words   |  10 Pagesmuch greater and deadlier than their own. Dulce Et Decorum Est was written in the 20th Century. It depicts war, in this case WW1, an exact opposite to Charge Of The Light Brigade. Owen wants to dispel the lie that describes war as a place of pride and brightness, when in reality it is a place of bloodshed and obscurity. Owen knows first hand the devastation of combatting in war because he experienced it himself; therefore he ridicules the renowned title ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est, which means ‘it is sweetRead More Love Presented in Poems by Wilfred Owen Essay2489 Words   |  10 Pages Love Presented in Poems by Wilfred Owen Explore how the theme of love is presented in Birdsong and a selection of poems by Wilfred Owen. Loving attitudes, though perhaps not as prominent as themes such as violence and pride, are intimately observed and explored in Sebastian Faulks Birdsong and in many of Wilfred Owens War poems. Each aspect of love, as seen through the eyes of this First World War soldier and Faulks characters, is as interesting as it is diverse, allowing an imperviousRead MoreThe History of The Old Lie and Poetry of Wilfred Owen2490 Words   |  10 PagesThe History of The Old Lie and Poetry of Wilfred Owen Dulce et Decorum Est Pro Patria Mori is a Latin saying that was expressed by the roman poet Horace. It means It is sweet and fitting to die for your country. When Owen wrote his poetry based on his experience of the Great War he did not agree with this saying; he wrote poetry that was full of horror yet told the truth. Therefore he called this saying the old lie. Owen called it this because war was no longer

Vietnam war Free Essays

string(166) " impact on the viewers who realised a lot of Americans were killed, but they primarily saw the atrocities the American soldiers were imposing on Vietnamese soldiers\." When talking about American media during the time of the Vietnam Wars, a common belief is that US news coverage of the events had a significant impact on public opion about the conflict, at such an extent that is is sometimes refered to as the â€Å"Living- Room War† or the â€Å"Media War†. Critics of the US Media in coverage in Vietnam claim that most of the journalists were personnally against the war and their reports therefore negative portraits of US Involement in Vietnam, biased by their personal point of views. Other people thank the media for having given more accurate reports f what was happening in Vietnam than the ones given officially by the leaders of the country The accuracy and the objectivism of the media at that time is still questionned nowadays, but was is clear is that before the Tet offensive of 1968, the media had genrerally reported on the war quite favorably whereas It was presented in a more negative light at the end of the sixties and in the early seventies. We will write a custom essay sample on Vietnam war or any similar topic only for you Order Now The debate on the role played by the U. S. Media in the Vietnam wars is open: did the media follow public opinion, or did it Influence It? To what extent If any was the US media opposed to the Vietnam War? My essay shall first explore the shift brought by the Tet offensive In the US media. Then, shall focus on analyzing what caused the media to be accused of being against the Vietnam War before looking at the consequenses supposedly engedered by the role of the media. Finally I shall draw a limit on the role played by the media during the conflict. At the beginning of the war, American people seem to have supported it but public support decreased over the years. Although it was a major topic of the news by the end of the sixties. he Vietnam War was not a major concern for the American citizens t the beginning of the decade. Despite Kennedy’s decision to militarize the war and send military advisors to Vietnam, when Johnson replaced him, only one American on four was aware of the conflictsl . The Kennedy administration and the Johnson administration tried to keep the public away from the concern of the war. When J ohnson ran his election campaign, he was promising the Americans that he did not intend to escalate the war. He therefore stood for the peaceful candidate, and a lot of people would vote for him hoping he would find a diplomatic solution to the conflict.. An incident occurred during the time of the election campaign: the Gulf of Tonkin crisis. As Walt Rostow -a political theorist- noticed, the crisis occurred when needed. In fact, the resolution passed by the Congress gave Johnson a Justification to escalate the war and public opinion therefore accepted the decision. 2 The â€Å"carte blanche† given to President Johnson after the incident permitted him to escalate the war without any major opposition. A few people opposed it, like George Ball who was in favour of negociations rather than a military escalation that would be diffcult to ontrol. According to Daniel C Hallln, It Is only with the Gulf of Tonkin Incident that the Americans began to be conscious about the conflict occuring in Vietnam3. Political leaders supported, or at least, did not really opposed Johnson decision of ecalating the war, a decision he had taken without informing the American citizens. In 1965, â€Å"tuesday-lunch meetings†, Johnson had previously taken a lot of decisions through a limited group, whose members themselves started to doubt about the strategy in Vietnam. It is the case for McNamara who was pushed away from the decision- aking after having spokn in favour of a diplomatic solution. The disagreements within the governement started to serve as topic of critic for the Journalists who did not approve of the war. Senator William Fullbright instored the Senate Foreign Relation committee hearings that were televised. The conflict in Vietnam was not anymore presented through facts to the American public, but it was debated and criticized in front of them. In 1966, public opinion started to be reluctant about Johnson’s policy-making. At that stage, opinions over the war were divided, whereas it was between political leaders or etween the American citizens. A majority of people was against the war, but a minority agreed on what should be done to end the conflict. The key event that permitted the US media to play a role in the war occurred a few years later when the Tet Offensive took place. American people were already putting the war in question because of the fact that the war had already been carried on for a long time and had costed many lives of young Americans. But at the meantime, official statements were repeating that US army was making huge progression towards victory. The Tet Offensive is nowadays seen as the one that turned public opinion, and the war itself. When the Communists attacked South Vietmam in January 1968, the Americans and South Vietnamese turned back the attack. It was a clear military victory on the battlefields but the images resulting from the attack had an opposite efect on the audience. This event is genarally said to be decisive for the end of the conflicts. In fact, despite a military victory; another battle was yet oppen: the media war. The Tet Offensive was reported on American TV and provided the ublic for the first time with the violence of the war. They had been told victory was near: it was not what the shoking images of the Tet Offensive were displaying. The Viet Cong suffered great losses but they had managed to trigger a revolt within the American society. The credibility of the Johnson administration in the mind of the public was yet destroyed. The Tet Offensive on television displayed scenes of combat, of They had a shoking impact on the viewers who realised a lot of Americans were killed, but they primarily saw the atrocities the American soldiers were imposing on Vietnamese soldiers. You read "Vietnam war" in category "Papers" The Tet offensive was interpreted as a defeat by the media since it proved that victory was far for being near. One of the Journalists reporting on the Tet incident was CBS newscaster Walter Cronkite, â€Å"the most trusted man in America† according to a opinion poll, made the famous statement that the war would result either in a stalemate or a defeat4. Johnson was aware of the power the journalists had on the American society. After Cronkite had spoken about the war, Johnson said â€Å"Well, if I’ve lost Cronkite, I’ve lost middle America†. They had been antiwar protests that had been televised before 1968. The March on the Pentagon in 1967 was as a huge media event: Americans ah hippies putting home. However, antiwar movements were themselves divided. Some of them were radical movements that paradoxically proned violence to revolt against the atrocities in Vietnam. The radicalism of some of the movements made that media did not really know how to deal with them in the news and left some American reluctant to join them. But after the Tet Offensive, antiwar protests were presented on the screen in a more positive perspective. The movement itself gained strength after people istrust the governement and the media increased their coverage of protests. The media helped the antiwar movement to gain strength. The critical approach of the war the media took after the Tet Offensive helped the citizens to take more seriously what independent Journalists opposing the war had said before. At the end of the sixties, the image of the Vietnam War conveyed by the media was quite negative and until the withdrawal of the troops, the media not look at the Vietnam War in a postitive light. The Nixon government had to face another media scandal undermining US involvement in Vietnam in 1971. The New York Times stole a copy of the Pentagon Papers, a secret study â€Å"History of the US decision-making Process on Vietnam Policy’ and published it, followed by the Washington Post. As it was enlighted later in the New York Times in 1996, the publication of the Pentagone Papers prove the American people that Jonshon and his administration had constantly lied to the people but also to the Congress5. To defend the role played by the media during the conflict, Journalists argue that they were only providing the audience and the readers with what was hidden to them by official reports. The shift in the way US media presented the war after the Tet incident is the reason why media are sometimes said to have been opposed to the Vietnam War, and sometimes even accused of having been responsible for the defeat. Different opinions can be found on this matter, agreeing or rejecting those theories, but what seems clear is that a war was being carried on between the leaders of the country and the media. Nixon explicitly express his disagrement with US news coverage, arguing that aside from the Communists, â€Å"our worst enemy seems to be the press†6. According to him, media put an emphasis on the military and moral side of the combat, forgetting to speak about the genuine objective of the war which was to fight Communism. This objective is what had maintain the Journalists to speak in a united voice at the beginning of the conflict: the only Journalists who disaproved with the conflict did not disagree with its aim, but with the strategies employed to achieve it. 7 Johnson’s vice-president Spiro Angnew also regularly denounced the unneffciency and inaccuracy of the media, even calling the reporters â€Å"nattering nabobs of negativism†. In 1970, President Nixon founded the Office of Telecommunications Policy (OTP) to promote positive media coverage for his administration and to question indirectly the media’s accuracy. Critics of the press covering the Vietnam War are often stating that what the press did was showing daily fghts, forgetting about their aims, and focusing on details instead of providing the public with valuable informations. 8 Wyatt commented on this particular issue :†An intense focus on spot reporting of day-to-day combat and political stories (†¦ typified American Journalism in Vietnam. During the height of American military involvement, even the most interested, diligent [dedicated] news consumer could conclude that the war in Vietnam was primarily an American effort in which non-military issues were either nonexistent or unimportant. â€Å"9 A parallel can be drawn between human memory and news media coverage. 10 Both of them keep certain images and versions of events and supr ess others. The Journalists therefore chose to provide the American people with a certain approach to the conflic. What they are often blamed for in the coverage of the war, is that they have not been able o imform the Americans about the actions of the Viet Cong. By focusing on the violence of the conflicts involving Americans, the importance of the war crimes commited by the Viet Cong on the Vietnamese population was neglected. For those who believe that the Vietnam was lost because of the media, their argument is that by leading the nation to stand against the war, the soldiers on the battlefields lost the support they needed. In November 1969, President Nixon made a speech on television where he suggested that the â€Å"great silent majority’ of Americans supported the war and that the media were undermining the war effort. John Pilgrer is one of the Journalists denying the fact that the Vietnam War was lost because of the media. According to him, the media coverage did not undermined the military and political effort, and the reporters were not antiwar. ll He points out that what the media did was to support â€Å"a failed crusade†. It is for these reasons that some argue that Vietnam was not a military defeat, but more a social defeat generated by the media. Marshal McLuhan is a famous defensor of this theory. He argues: â€Å"Television brought the brutality of war into the comfort of the living room. Vietnam was lost in the living rooms of America, not on the battlefields of Vietnam. â€Å". The defeat can be explained by the fact that no military or political leaders had understood that the information war was at least as important as the military war. The media challenged the discrepencies between the reality in Vietnam and the reports of official sources. Emanating from a pluralistic media, the power of convincing the people was increased. Defensors of the media would argue primarily that it is only an excuse for the leaders not to take credit for a battle that ended up being a disaster for America. Richard Hallbrooke statement illustrates this point of view: â€Å"The press didn’t lose the war for us. The war was lost because the strategy was wrong. The military lost the war; the political leadership of this country lost the war. Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon and [Secretary of State] Henry Kissinger are the men who cost us this thing. Not the Case-Church Amendment [a law that placed restrictions on presidential war powers], not David Halberstam and Walter Cronkite, and not the antiwar demonstrators. The war was not lost, as Nixon always likes to write, in the halls of Congress and on the ages of the New York Times; it was lost in the rice paddies of Indochina. â€Å"12 They would also respond to the critic who claim that the war was lost because of the media showing only the horror of the fights, that only a small percentage of the news coverage were fghtings. However, an study by the sociologist George Bailey shows related to actions by US ground troops or US Air force. 13 According to many Journalists -Walter Conkrite being one of them-, media proved efficient in giving America truthful informations at a time when the government and the military leaders were lying to them. A credibility gap was therefore constructed, and vice-president Spiro Agnew accused the Journalists of being resonsible for it, stating that if such a gap existed, the best place to start looking for it was not the offices of governement in Washington but in the studios of network in New York. It is however hard to determine if the media were the source of influence for public opinion. The researches led by Daniel C. Hallin led to the conclusion that â€Å"Television was more a follower than a leader of public opinion. † The media had a different role in the Vietnam than it had had in previous conflicts. Instead of reinforcing the voice of the governement, it provived the public with a critical approach of US policy making. Also, because it was the first war being televised, it was the first time American people had to face images of the conflict. Those images are now what remains in the minds of the people when thinking about the news coverage of the Vietnam. At the time, the reporters were not really aware of the power it could have on the mind of the people, nor on the everlasting impact it had on the society. Television and photographs, the visual images of the war, is what people remember owadays. The fact that Journalist did not realise that they were actually opposing the war is a point that is worth raising. If the media proved to be opposed to the War, it may not be what they intented. The power the images displayed on television had on the public is hard to determine, as Hallin underlines: â€Å"television images pass very quickly, leaving the audience with little time to reflect on their meaning. We know very little about how television audiences construct the meaning of what they see and hear†. 14 The consequenses of showing the war on images was probably not anticipated by the eporters, but American public surely remembers pictures such as Vietnam Napalm† by Nick Ut (1972) or â€Å"The Execution† by Eddie Adams (1962). Life Magazine is the author of one of the most influential act during the war with the publication of an edition with photographs of the 242 American soldiers killed during one week of fighting. At the time of the Tet Offensive, Journalists rushed to cover the event. They gave America the pictures of the attack stating that what was happening there was horrific. The Tet Offensive was a real disaster in term of losses for the North Vietnamese soldiers. It appears clear that they knew they would not have any chance to win against the South Vietnamese and the Americans. This suicide-assault may illustrate that the Communists had understood the power the media could have in a fght. They wanted reporters to show to the people in America how violent were the conflicts, and how Americans slaughtered the Vietnamese. If such was their aim, they achieved it. Eddie Adams, the photograph who took the picture of a Viet Cong chief apologized to the US Army. 15 During the Vietnam. Wars, the media and the Americans seem to have followed the same opinion regarding the war. At the beginning, they were all genrerally supporting it. By the end of the sixties, they started to oppose it. The media might have influenced public opinion by starting to show the soldiers in action in Vietnam, by sympathise with antiwar movements or by displaying another version of event than the one given by the governement. Americans must have tend to believe what was told on the news at the time. They had believed the governement since the start of the war, and the war had still not ended. Moreover, the point of view given by the American media was one-sided: the enemy viewpoint was given in less than 3% of he coverage. 16 It is hard to define if the population influenced the media, or the contrary, and historians disagree on this point. Nevertheless, one must not forget that the Journalists were themselves American citizens, and therefore their voices counts as the voice of the nation. If we look at the news coverage on the Vietnam Wars, arguments can be found to describe the American media as being against the War. First of all, the fact that the media did not follow the same versions of events than the governement is one. How is the nation supposed to support a war launched y a governement that does not report the same versions of events as the ones shown on television and in the newspapers.? Morever, the antiwar movement was growing at the end of the sixties and antiwar protests were being covered by the media in a positive aspect. But what the media did that had the most impact on the American people is that they provided them with images of the conflict. Blood, violence, injuries: never a conflict had been covered that way on the television before. The shoking pictures stunned many people and the need for negociations to stop the disaster became the solution wanted by the people. In my opinion, Journalists were as shoked by the images as the people. They must have been revolted by the situation but did not intent to turn public opnion against the war. What I think they really did was to give the pictures that spoke for themselves to the public at first, and really speak against the war when they could embrace public opinion that was changing. To conclude with, I can say that the media were opposed to the war but in a limited way: the opinion on the coverage shifted with the public opinion and with the realization that the end of the war was far for being near. How to cite Vietnam war, Papers

Strategic Human Resource Management free essay sample

To simply define Human Resource Management (HRM), it is a management function that helps managers recruit, select, train and develop members for an organization. Obviously, HRM is concerned with the people’s dimension in organizations. When we say HRM of the organization, it is concerned with all the departments of it. In the marketing department, people consult products or services that lead to the sale. In the sales department, people sell products or give services to the customers. And also in finance, people manage and forecast the flow of money in the organization. All these functions cannot be accomplished without the help of the human resources and people are the ones that can make the organization achieve its objectives. And when the strategies come together with HRM, there comes Strategic Human Resource Management (strategic HRM or SHRM). It may be regarded as an approach to the management of human resources that provides a strategic framework to support long-term business goals and outcomes. The approach is concerned with longer-term people issues and macro-concerns about structure, quality, culture, values, commitment and matching resources to future need. First, according to Strategic Marketing Management by Wilson, Gilligan and Pearson, I would like to express the different levels within the organization that strategies must be developed. They are: * Corporate strategy, which deals with the allocation of resources among the various businesses or divisions of an organization. * Business strategy, which exists at the level of the individual business or division, dealing primarily with the question of competitive position. * Functional level strategy, that is limited to the actions of specific functions within specific businesses. The above strategies are set at the different levels to achieve a major or overall aim of the organization. The strategic approach addresses issues and needs relating to changes in structure and culture, organizational effectiveness and performance — matching human resources to future requirements, the development of distinctive capabilities and intellectual capital and the management of change. There are five functional areas identified by Bratton and Gold in forming the core of human resource management activities. Staffing: Obtaining people with appropriate skills, abilities, knowledge and experience to fill jobs in the work organization. This role encompasses human resource planning, job analysis, recruitment and selection. * Rewards: The design and administration of reward systems. This role includes job evaluation, performance appraisal and benefits. * Employee development: Analyzing training requirements to ensure that employees possess the knowledge and skills to perfo rm satisfactory in their jobs or to advance in the organization. Employee maintenance: The administration and monitoring of workplace safety, health and welfare policies to retain a competent workforce and comply with statutory standards and regulations. * Employee relations: Under this heading may be a range of employee involvement/ participation schemes in union or non-union workplaces. In a union environment, it also includes negotiations between management and union representatives over decisions affecting the employment contract. With the best HRM policies and practices, HRM strategy does more than drawing boundaries; it also recognizes and addresses peoples needs. The best HRM practices contribute the four outcomes as follow: * Competence: Employees are versatile in their skills and can take on new roles and jobs as needed and are better able to respond to changes in environmental demands. * Commitment: Enhance mutual trust and better communication between employees and managers. * Congruence: All stakeholders share a common purpose and collaborate in solving problems brought about by changes in environmental demands. * Cost effectiveness: HRM policies are cost-effective in terms of wages, benefits, turnover, absenteeism, strikes, and similar factors. Here is the example of â€Å"Starbucks† which is one of the best known and fastest growing companies in the world that invest a lot in human resources. Starbucks believed that the companys success and rapid growth could be attributed largely to its committed and motivated workforce. Consequently, the companys human resource policies reflected its commitment to its employees. Starbucks cared about its employees and was one of the few companies in the retail sector to provide generous benefits to both full time workers as well as part timers. This ensured that employees remained motivated, and Starbucks had a relatively low employee turnover. However, in the early 2000s, the company faced the challenge of finding and retaining the right number and kind of employees to man its future growth. Despite the fact that employees, especially those on the frontline, are critical to the success of retail businesses, most companies do not have a strong relationship with their employees, and consequently suffer from a high rate of employee turnover (In the early 2000s, employee turnover in the retail industry was around 200 percent). In this scenario, Starbucks stood out for its employee-friendly policies and supportive work culture. The company was especially noted for the extension of its benefits program to part-time workers something that not many other companies offered. They are offered health and dental coverage, vision care, life and disability insurance, paid time off, a retirement savings plan, stock options and a discounted stock purchase plan, adoption assistance, domestic partner benefits, emergency financial aid and a free pound of coffee every week. As a result, Starbucks employees were among the most productive in the industry and the company had a relatively low employee turnover. The above example proves that HRM is the crucial source of competitive advantage to be a successful organization in the business environment. Thus, as I have discussed so far, you may have some ideas about Human Resource Management and notice how much it is important for an organization. Reference 1. Aswathappa, K. Human Resource and Personnel Management (Fourth Edition ed. ), (pg. 5) 2. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Starbucks. (2013, January 17 Thursday). Retrieved from en. wikipedia. org. 3. http://www. hrtutorials. com/cs-model-evaluating-human-resources/. (2013, January 17 Thursday). Retrieved from www. hrtutorials. com. 4. http://www. icmrindia. org/casestudies/catalogue/Human%20Resource%20and%20Organization%20Behavior/HROB068. htm. (2013, January 15 Tuesday). Retrieved from www. icmrindia. org. 5. http://www. mainstreet. com/article/career/employment/4-employers-great-part-time-benefits. (2013, January 17 Thursday). Retrieved from www. mainstreet. com. 6. Manual, ABE Study, Strategic Human Resource Management, (pg. 4,5)

Referral and Assessment for Assistive Technology

Introduction Assistive technology assessment is an evaluation process carried out on disabled students engaged in learning process (Beard, Carpenter and Johnston, 2011).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Referral and Assessment for Assistive Technology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The most fundamental role of AT assessment is to generate data on disabled students, which are later used to recommend an appropriate assistive technology device type (AT) to the learner. Notable to mention is that this assessment process must be conducted globally in order to gather information from variety of sources (Beard et al, 2011). This step entirely relies on information collected from variety of sources worldwide. Such sources include student personal record and information gathered directly through observation by an AT specialist (Beard et al, 2011). Additionally, the AT specialist may also collect information by interview ing the disabled students family members and even fellow friends. Importance of assistive technology assessment Conducting an AT assessment is important since it specifically reveals specific special needs for students with disabilities. On the other hand, the assessment also helps in classifying the disabled based on their unique abilities (Beard et al, 2011). Most importantly, family members and friends also help the AT specialist to collect accurate information about the disabled learner. This is vital especially when making final decision concerning the AT devices type to be recommended for the disabled. The AT assessment also provides an accurate feedback, which best describes the students abilities (Beard et al, 2011). It is also easy for the AT specialist to recommending an appropriate education program teacher to work with the disabled student. IPad has revolutionalized learning for ASD students Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex developmental disability, which prec isely affects communication and socialization aspect of life (Autismparenthood, 2012).Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, ASD is a genetic spectrum disorder that can manifests severely in some people while in others it can manifests mildly. It is evident that many students who have ASD face a lot of challenges during learning process. The major challenge they face is communication difficulties with their teachers and other students. The use of iPad has revolutionalized learning processes for students with ASD. This is because, iPad provides a proper venue for both children and adults with ASD to speak out and be heard. iPad is the best technological gadget recommended to people with ASD. This is because it is portable and has varieties of applications. Additionally, it is easy to customize most applications on iPad in the best way it can help the non-verbal child to communicate (Autismparenthood, 2012). It is also possible to download varieties of pictures and symbols, which can guide the child in communication. When the child desires something, it is easy to touch the picture on the screen using the finger and the iPad speaks out. The child can also construct sentences using pictures or symbols in the iPad. The child will only touch several pictures as the iPad reads out. For example â€Å"I want to go out† (Autismparenthood, 2012). According to Autismparenthood (2012), it is evident that iPad helps in transforming the social status of the disabled child, by giving him a chance to speak out. It is also easier for the child to say yes or no to various events. It is also possible for the child to tell people what to do or what he wants by just pointing at a picture on the iPad screen. The iPad also has more entertaining applications like cartoons and songs, which attracts the child to it. The beautiful pictures and symbols on the iPad also help the child learn more and more. Incorporating iPad in lesson plan for ASD students It is possible to incorporate the use of iPad in school lesson plan. This is because learners with ASD will find it easier to communicate with the teacher. However, the lesson plan for disabled learners with Autism should differ with traditional lesson plan.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Referral and Assessment for Assistive Technology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is because, in most cases, the age group of students with disabilities in a class is always different. Therefore, an individualized lesson plan for each student is recommended (Davila, 2012). This helps the teacher focus on each student educational needs at different level. The lesson plan for ASD students should be more repetitive. This is because students with Autism benefit more from repetitive learning. This is because it helps them master and remember new conc epts from the iPad more easily (Davila, 2012). Another education value of incorporating iPad in lesson plan is that it allows the teacher to download new applications that can train learners on spelling and writing skills (Autismparenthood, 2012). Conclusion It is important for the society to advance, embrace and use new technology to support learners who are disabled. It is a wrong for parents to neglect disabled children since, at individual level, they bear unique abilities and skills. References Autismparenthood. (2012). Autism in Children: iPad Revolutionalize Learning. Web. Beard, L. A., Carpenter, L. B., Johnston, L. B. (2011). Assistive technology: Access for all students (2nd Ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Davila, M. (2012). Lesson Plan for Teaching Autism. Web. This essay on Referral and Assessment for Assistive Technology was written and submitted by user Puff Adder to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Patriots vs. Loyalists Essays

Patriots vs. Loyalists Essays Patriots vs. Loyalists Paper Patriots vs. Loyalists Paper Town Meeting Reflection Essay The town meeting that was held a week ago was confusing but exciting at the same time. Loyalists and Patriots were arguing their opinions of colonial independence. The loyalists wanted to prevent the colonial independence movement but the patriots wanted that independence. So because of the movement, patriots and loyalists began arguing and debating. Some didnt get to say what they were going to say and some had their chance. I think the patriots had better arguments, because hey were more concise about the debates, such as the taxation without representation and the Stamp Act. The loyalists also had good arguments such as taxes were paid in order to protect colonies. During the town meeting, the patriots had some good points for colonial independence. One of the major argument that was mentioned was taxation without representation. Taxation without representation meant that colonists refused to pay taxes to England until they were represented in British Parliament. They were paying high taxes to support a government The Stamp Act was a British act that taxed every British good by making the colonists buy a stamp for every British good purchased. But was later canceled. So when the patriots heard about this they tarred and feathered the British tax collectors. These arguments brought up during the town meeting were convincing because backed up their debates. The loyalists of the town meeting brought up major points like the taxing colonists or everything but were being used to protect them as well. One person said we tax you so we can protect you and your family. The debate started from then on. Patriots got furious, and said we dont need you to protect us, we can protect ourselves. the loyalists responded with if we didnt put a soldier with guns in your houses to protect you, then you might have been dead by now. So the debate went on and on. But ended up with the patriots winning the debate. I dont think the loyalists had a invoicing argument because they kept repeating the same thing over and over, which was we tax you to protect you. Overall the town meeting was great. People had their say about what they dont like about the colonial independence. The loyalists who stayed loyal to the king and Britain didnt have persuading thoughts so I have to say Im going to go with the patriots side. The patriots had lots of good arguments and they were more convincing. Patriots vs.. Loyalists Town Meeting Reflection Essay By lustiness

Regional Innovation Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Regional Innovation Policy - Essay Example Any regional initiative must evolve from a partnership of business, governments, non-profits and education/training institutions. In the Cleveland area, a partnership in North-eastern Ohio undertook a project to identify industry "clusters" within the region that were competitive in the global economy. The project, the Northeast Ohio Regional Economic Development Strategies Initiative, is a partnership of the Akron Regional Development Board or ARDB, Cleveland Tomorrow (a committee of the CEO's of the region's largest companies), and the Greater Cleveland Growth Association or GCGA (the Chamber of Commerce for the City of Cleveland). NOREDSI's goal was to promote industrial clusters in the region, so as to become more globally competitive. This initiative sought to generate a bottom-up, private sector program in which interrelated private firms within an identifiable "cluster" could work together to identify and resolve common needs and concerns. This research identified six industry clusters (metalworking, plastic products and chemicals, motor vehicles and equipment, insurance, biomedical products, and instruments & controls) that were relatively competitive or had competitive advantages in the region. In a series of cluster forums with these industries, private sector participants identified six main issues as barriers to retaining regional competitive advantages. They were: workforce/education; technology/R&D; entrepreneurship; regulatory/tax policies; quality of life; and, infrastructure. Unfortunately for the Cleveland area, the need for human capital development appears to be especially great if its major industries are not to wither. If a region is attempting to be globally competitive, a well-trained workforce is essential to increasing the levels of productivity. One of the public sector's most vital economic development initiatives, first, is to reach consensus with regional industries on the skill sets needed by firms and, then, to adopt policies ensuring that students can attain them in all districts throughout the region. Another very important area is constituted by the services that state and local governments provide to businesses directly. These include promoting entrepreneurial skills and technological upgrading, providing an advanced physical infrastructure, and helping businesses through tax and regulatory relief. Finally, state governments should develop and encourage taxing policies, which benefit regions. The most commonly used example of tax policy designed to enhance the economic development benefits to a region is Minnesota's shared tax base. Put simply, economic benefits (e.g., taxes) generated by a firm's location in a city in the region accrue to all cities in the region. The regional level may be important for firms attempting to achieve global competitiveness. The question arises as to what strategies local communities can commence, and what policies local or state governments can initiate, in order to raise the innovativeness and competitiveness of regional firms. Regional innovation policy and its relationship with the regio

E-Business Report on HMV.CO.UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

E-Business Report on HMV.CO.UK - Essay Example "e-commerce is just, when all is said and done, another kind of business. As with businesses that have come before it, there are countless "right" answers, endless combinations of business models and infinite permutations of key themes and approaches. There will be no magic bullet. No matter how often consultants and academics pretend that business is more science than art, every practitioner knows that business is almost all art, just as the genius of nearly every corporate strategy lies in its implementation." (Rayport, 1999). Indeed, these are strong words that have to be taken seriously when it comes to doing business on the Web. The reason behind these truthful remarks lies in the fact that not long ago, shortly after the increasing popularity of the Internet as a new technology, the infamous "Dot-Com Bubble" made e-marketers think and act much more cautiously regarding the real potentialities of the new technology as a profit-making tool. Rayport states it as follows: "Business models themselves do not offer solutions; rather, how each business is run determines its success. So the success of e-commerce businesses will hinge largely on the art of management even as it is enabled by the science of technology. The scarce resource will be, as it is in practically all of business, the building block of free enterprise: entrepreneurial, and increasingly managerial, talent." (Rayport, 1999). The "Dot-Com Bubble" sprang out of Amazon's new concept of dintermediation that would eventually make successful any online enterprise by eliminating the middleman. (InternetNews.Com, 2001). The concept of reintermediation was not considered into the new marketing mix as InternetNews.Com states it clearly: "Disintermediation is not a myth, but it is just one half of a process that any significant change in technology brings about. The other half is reintermediation, the introduction and reshuffling of players in the supply chain. Access to suppliers and information resources has become easily available; expertise and service cannot be downloaded." (InternetNews.Com, 2001). In spite of the negative effects of the "Dot-Com Bubble", Teri Robinson (2002) finds some lasting benefits of the sudden crash in the e-market. In her article published in E-Commerce Times, Robinson interviewed AMR Research analyst Louis Columbus who emphasised that the concept of integration surfaced to centre stage as a result of the "Dot-Com Bubble". Columbus said that "enterprises found that to develop a comprehensive e-commerce strategy, their applications had to work together seamlessly." (Robinson, 2002). The concept of integration is fundamental for any e-business model in the widest meaning of the word. It means integration at all levels of business operations. On the other hand, Robinson finds other key indirect benefits that surfaced as a real issue as a result of the e-market crash known as the "Dot-Com Bubble": "Referring to the Internet as a once-in-a-generation

Organizational psychology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organizational psychology - Assignment Example Administers process organizational tasks and establish work environments. Leaders are mainly mandated with execution of administrative duties, inspiring supporters and creation of underlying common managerial cultures and tenets (Leonard et al, 2013). While managers deal with the underlying intricacy, leaders deal with initiating and adjusting underlying change (Aamodt, 2013). Leaders are majorly mandated with undertaking tasks that pertain to setting a way or idea, aligning populace to share goals, collaborating and motivating. Approaches of studying leadership in I/O psychology are widely categories into Leader-focused, Contingency-focused and Follower-focused approaches. Leader-focused approaches mainly focus on the organizational leaders in determining the underlying features of real leadership. Trait approach defines effective leaders to being having particular traits that are lacks in the ineffective leaders (Hersen & Thomas, 2003). The approach is mainly utilized in predicting leader emergence. Leader emergence is mainly predicted via analysis of the traits such as high intelligence, elevated desires for dominance, lofty self-motivation and communally perceptive (Aamodt, 2013). Behavioral approach as a leader-focused approach mainly emphases on the prevailing behaviors that differentiate effective from the corresponding ineffective leaders. Two main categories of leadership are contemplation and instigating structure. Behavior that is related with category of consideration pertains depiction of subordinates that they leaders value and care about them (Leonard et al, 2013). Moreover, behaviors that are related to initiating structure entail simpl ification of the task performance of the prevailing groups (Aamodt & Aamodt, 2007). Power and influence is also approach of leader-focused that mainly pertains to the means on how effective leaders influence people in line with the underlying organization’s mission and objectives (Hersen & Thomas, 2003). The degree of influence of a leader relies on the social power and corresponding probable in regard to manipulating their subordinates (Messick & Kramer, 2005). The major foundations of supremacy entail forcible power, authentic power, referent power, reward power and informational power. Leaders normally utilize numerous diverse tactics in manipulating others in their respective organization. The common tactics mainly entail rational inducement, inspiring appeal, session, ingratiation exchange, alliance, individual appeal, and pressure and legitimating (Hersen & Thomas, 2003). Contingency-focused approaches of leadership are the most dominant and are mainly based on the lead er’s efficacy on their capability in assessing and adapting to their behavior. The theories within this approach assume that the prevailing leaders are capable of reading the underlying a circumstance and dexterously employ a leadership style that warrant the individuals connections in behavior task at hand (Lowenberg et al, 1998). The main theories in the Contingency-focused approaches are Fiedler’s Contingency theory that outline that effectiveness of a leader depends on the underlying collaboration amidst their features and corresponding characteristics of the condition (Aamodt & Aamodt,

Reducing Plastic Bag Usage In Hong Kong Environmental Sciences Essay

Reducing Plastic Bag Usage In Hong Kong Environmental Sciences Essay The Hong Kong government and the Environmental Protection Department (EPD) have launched an environmental levy of plastic shopping bags in July 2009 which aims to reduce indiscriminate use of plastic bags. After one-year of implementation, it is conducted that limited contribution is achieved. Our organization understands the awareness of the indiscriminate use of plastic bags which burdens the landfills and raises the visible environmental problem in Hong Kong. In this paper, we are writing to suggest two proposed policies in terms of extension of the levy scheme: (1) extend the scale of the levy to all retail outlets; and (2) embrace all types of plastic bags into charge. All of these aim to reduce the use of plastic bags more effectively in Hong Kong. Furthermore, we will discuss the effectiveness and concerns of the proposed policies with related references and successful cases from other countries e.g. Ireland, which has already introduced its plastic bag levy in 2002. Lastly, t he paper ends with a recommendation on broadening the scope of the levy scheme by corresponding measures. In 7th July 2009, the Hong Kong government and the Environmental Protection Department (EPD) introduced the Environmental levy on plastic shopping bags (the scheme) in order to reduce indiscriminate use of plastic bags and arouse consumers awareness on the visible environmental problem in Hong Kong. The government proposed the scheme with a levy of 50 cents for a plastic shopping bag in a variety of retail outlets. After one-year of implementation, the government conducted that per-capita disposal figure of plastic shopping bags is over 1.8 per person in 2009 which is lowered than the figure conducted in 2005. The accomplishment is appreciated. (EPD, 2009) After a head start of one-year of implementation, it is potential for the scheme to be extended with a broader scope due to its incomprehensive outcomes and the presence of loopholes. Therefore, we are writing to suggest two proposed policies in terms of extension of the levy scheme which aims to reduce the use of plastic bags in a more effective way. Background information 3.1 Statement to the Problem The indiscriminate use of plastic bags is a major visible environmental problem in Hong Kong. From the Landfill Survey'(2005) which is conducted by EPD, it is estimated that more than 23 million of plastic bags are disposed in the landfill every day. In 2009, EPD took into account to this problem with the introduction of Environmental levy on plastic shopping bags. Nevertheless, according to the Hong Kong Retail Management Association (HKRMA)(2009), it is estimated that the scheme achieved a limited contribution with only 6% reduction of plastic bag usage after one-year of implementation. The estimation reflects that long-term implementation and extension of the scheme is needed to deal with the problem while the benefit of the extended scheme would probably go directly to environmental protection. 3.3 Our organizations interest with respect to the problem Our environmental organization understands the rising awareness of the indiscriminate use of plastic bags which lead to major visible environmental problem. Our objectives are tackling environmental issues and undertaking research for further advice to government policy in terms of environment protection. The survey conducted by GHK indicated that it takes 20 to 1000 years to decompose the plastic bags in the present landfills. In addition, the usage of plastic bags is increasing simultaneously. (GHK Hong Kong Ltd, 2007) With respect to the limited contributions achieved from the existing scheme, we have drawn up two policy options for the extension of the existing scheme which aim reduce the use of plastic bags and encourage consumers to change their behavior towards sustainable consumption. Policy options Current policy and situation There are only a total of 41 prescribed retailers registered under the levy scheme and about 3000 qualified retail outlets are subject to the current scheme. They are including supermarkets, convenience stores, and personal health and beauty stores. The number of registered retailers shows that the scope of the levy scheme is limited while 96% of retail outlets are still not subject to the scheme. In addition, it is conducted that 3 million of levy is collected in the first season after implementation of the plastic bag levy. However, a clear proposal is usually absent to tell how the revenue raised from the scheme is spent. According to EPD (May 2007), the definition of plastic shopping bags under the levy is that bags that are made wholly or predominantly of plastic with carrying handles, holes or strings. It turns out with the increasing use of alternative bags or wrapped packages, e.g. laminated plastic bags, non-woven bags and fruit bags. For example, supermarket chains were circumventing the levy and many retail outlets are starting to sell prepackaged products. Proposed policies Broaden the scope of the levy scheme (1)Extend the scale of the levy to all retail outlets (2)Embrace all types of plastic bags into charge Policy option (1) Extend the scale of the levy to all retail outlets 4.2.1a) Implementation The current policy apparently shows that the scope of the implement scheme is limited to achieve a more comprehensive goal. With respect to the limitation, the levy scheme should be implemented extensively in all kind of retail outlets in Hong Kong. The remaining 96% of retail outlets, including small-scale, individual neighborhood retail stores and local wet markets should be all covered in terms of the extension of the levy scheme. 4.2.1b) Effects and advantages The extension of the implement scale of retail outlets would further reduce indiscriminate use of plastic bags and arouse peoples attention to serious environmental problem. Ireland is a successful case among all countries implementations while all kinds of retail outlets are subject to the levy which a 15 Euro cent tax is paid for a plastic shopping bag. Nevertheless, Ireland achieved a dramatic reduction 94% of plastic bag usage is reduced with the effect of the levy scheme. (Frank, Simon Susana, 2007) 4.2.1c) Concerns and disadvantages Under the extension of implementation, we concern that some small retailers could not afford a computerized or new cashier system to handle the levy (most of the retailers in wet markets). Therefore, it is difficult for them to collect cash manually before submitting the levy to EPD. Apart from that, oppositions from different sectors would be raised, especially for those retailers which plastic bags are necessary used. For example, butchers in Ireland strongly opposed to the levy because of its hygiene reason. (Frank, Simon Susana, 2007) Therefore, the government should determine whether the exemption is needed for several kinds of retailers with corresponding measures. Policy option (2) Embrace all types of plastic bags into charge 4.2.2a) Implementation We suggested that all types of plastic bags should be embraced into charge. It means that all kinds of bags which are made of wholly or predominantly of plastic, including laminated plastic bags, non-woven bags and fruit bags are all imposed to the scheme even they contain carrying handles, holes or strings. In addition, the levy collected is suggested to go directly to an environmental fund for the expenditure of environmental disposal projects and educational purposes. 4.2.2b) Effects and advantages The scheme fills in the loopholes of the existing policy in terms of the revised definition of plastic bags. All kinds of plastic bags, including wrapped, packing product bags and fruit bags are all applied to the scheme. In Ireland, all kinds of plastic bags are embraced into charge with 15 Euro cents. It achieved with a dramatic reduction (94%) of plastic bag usage. From the successful case of Ireland, we anticipate that the embracement of all kinds of plastic bags into the scheme would effectively reduce the use of plastic bags by consumers and make a link between price value and good environmental behavior among the public. In addition, the levy which goes directly to an environmental fund avoids absence of reporting how the revenue is spent by the General Revenue and gives support to environmental disposal projects. For example, the revenues from the scheme in Ireland are ring fenced in an Environmental Fund which is controlled by the Minister for the Environment, Heritage and L ocal Government for administration cost and capitals of environmental program promotion. (Frank, Simon Susana, 2007) 4.2.2c) Concerns and disadvantages We concern that there would be a rise of alternative use of paper shopping bags under the implementation of the proposed policy. As all kinds of plastic bags are subject to the levy, paper bag is the shifting target for both retailers and consumers. We are worrying that a single paper bag produces 2.7 times as much solid waste as the equivalent plastic bag. (GHK Hong Kong Ltd, 2007) According to the Hong Kong Plastic Bags Manufacturers Association executive vice chairman Ricky Wong Wai-ki, the materials and energy used for producing nonwoven recycled shopping bags is more environmental-unfriendly. (GHK Hong Kong Ltd, 2007) Therefore, the government is responsible for further action on tackling the problem of alternative use of paper bags. Recommendation Indiscriminate use of plastic bag is one of the major visible environmental problems in Hong Kong. The introduction of the Environmental levy on plastic shopping bags is necessary to tackle this problem. However, the limited contribution achieved from the scheme urged for a proper modification and more effective extension. Our organization suggests to extending the scale of the levy scheme to all retail outlets while 96% of them are still not subject to the scheme. Therefore, the enlarged scale of the levy would be an effective way to further reduce indiscriminate use of plastic bags and arouse peoples attention to serious environmental problem. The feasibility of the proposed policy is high in long terms with comprehensive planning and certain corresponding measures (for example: promotions, educational activities and distribution of fabric reusable shopping bags) supported by the government. We are anticipating to accomplishing a good environmental behavior developed among the public with this strong publicity campaign. Implementation(s): Study and learn from foreign successful cases of implementing plastic bag levy (e.g. Ireland) Conduct a comprehensive review with evaluation after 1-year implementation of the levy scheme Consult public, retailers and industries opinions on the extension of the levy scheme Broaden the scope of the levy scheme in terms of scale of scheme and the types of plastic bags a) Extend the scale of the levy to all retail outlets b) Embrace all types of plastic bags into charge Organize educational talks to all primary and secondary schools to promote the reduction of indiscriminate use of plastic bags Giving out fabric reusable shopping bags to students and less privileged families every year in order to encourage consumers to change their behavior towards sustainable consumption Reinforce the existing environmental campaign with sufficient promotion Bring your own bag (BYOB) Conclusion Due to limited contributions achieved in the existing environmental levy on plastic shopping bags, an extension of the levy scheme is necessary to achieve a more comprehensive goal. Our organization suggests two policy options, including the extension of the scale to all retail outlets and embraces all kinds of plastic bags into charge. From the successful case learnt from Ireland, we ensure that the implementations of these similar policies are effective. Therefore, it is necessary for the Hong Kong government to extend the levy scheme in terms of scope in order to achieve a sustainable consumption of plastic bags.

Leonardo da Vinci :: Renaissance Biography Biographies

Childhood Years "Leonardo da Vinci was a renaissance painter, architect, engineer, mathematician and philosopher. He was the greatest genius the world has ever seen." On April 15, 1452 Leonardo di ser Piero was born in Anchiano. From there he moved to Vinci. A famous misconception about this man is his last name. Most people would assume da Vinci is his last name, however, his last name is not da Vinci. Da means from therefore Leonardo da Vinci means Leonardo from Vinci. Instead of explained which Leonardo he was he would say Leonardo from Vinci so as to not confuse anyone. Vinci was a Republic of Florence, and in itself it is equivalent with our boroughs or counties. Leonardo's father, Ser Piero, got a woman named Catarina pregnant. It is likely that she was the daughter of a farmer and therefore he didn't marry her. She gave birth to Leonardo and then Ser Piero married another woman within the year. He was 25 years old when Leonardo was born. His father's occupation was a public notary. Leonardo was christened in Baptismal chapel in Vinci; he was christened by the parson Piero da Bartolomeo to the name Lionardo and not Leonardo. Leonardo lived with his father and his father's first wife in Anchiano until Leonardo was about five years old then they move to Vinci to live with Leonardo's father. Ser Piero and his first wife never had any children and even though Leonardo was illegitimate he was integrated into his father's family. Leonardo went to school in Vinci; his teachers were hopeless to the fact that Leonardo was always questioning and doubting his teachers. Leonardo lived in Vinci until he was 14 then he moved to Florence to begin an apprenticeship in the workshop of Verrocchio. From Florence to France Leonardo stayed in Florence for quite a while. He considered it his home and returned several times throughout his life. Verrocchio was very impresses with Leonardo's drawings so he gave Leonardo a place in his workshop. In this workshop Leonardo got a chance to work with Botticelli, Perugino and Lorenzo di Credi. Leonardo's apprenticeship ended with Verrocchio in June 1472 when he got his name red book of painters from Florence (Campagnia de Pittori). However, in ending the apprenticeship Leonardo did not leave Verrocchio's workshop. In fact Verrocchio and Leonardo worked together on several paintings. The first recorded drawing of Leonardo's was on August 5, 1473.

Life in Mars Essay

For centuries people have speculated about the possibility of life on Mars owing to the planet’s proximity and similarity to Earth. Serious searches for evidence of life began in the 19th century, and continue via telescopic investigations and landed missions. While early work focused on phenomenology and bordered on fantasy, modern scientific inquiry has emphasized the search for chemical biosignatures of life in the soil and rocks at the planet’s surface, and the search for biomarker gases in the atmosphere. Fictional Martians have been a recurring feature of popular entertainment of the 20th and 21st centuries, and it remains an open question whether life currently exists on Mars, or has existed there in the past. Early speculation Mars’ polar ice caps were observed as early as the mid-17th century, and they were first proven to grow and shrink alternately, in the summer and winter of each hemisphere, by William Herschel in the latter part of the 18th century. By the mid-19th century, astronomers knew that Mars had certain other similarities to Earth, for example that the length of a day on Mars was almost the same as a day on Earth. They also knew that its axial tilt was similar to Earth’s, which meant it experienced seasons just as Earth does — but of nearly double the length owing to its much longer year. These observations led to the increase in speculation that the darker albedo features were water, and brighter ones were land. It was therefore natural to suppose that Mars may be inhabited by some form of life. In 1854, William Whewell, a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, who popularized the word scientist, theorized that Mars had seas, land and possibly life forms. Speculation about life on Mars exploded in the late 19th century, following telescopic observation by some observers of apparent Martian canals — which were however soon found to be optical illusions. Despite this, in 1895, American astronomer Percival Lowell published his book Mars, followed by Mars and its Canals in 1906, proposing that the canals were the work of a long-gone civilization. [2] This idea led British writer H. G. Wells to write The War of the Worlds in 1897, telling of an invasion by aliens from Mars who were fleeing the planet’s desiccation. Spectroscopic analysis of Mars’ atmosphere began in earnest in 1894, when U. S. astronomer William Wallace Campbell showed that neither water nor oxygen were present in the Martian atmosphere. [3] By 1909 better telescopes and the best perihelic opposition of Mars since 1877 conclusively put an end to the canal theory. Missions Mariner 4 Mariner 4 probe performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian surface in 1965. The photographs showed an arid Mars without rivers, oceans, or any signs of life. Further, it revealed that the surface (at least the parts that it photographed) was covered in craters, indicating a lack of plate tectonics and weathering of any kind for the last 4 billion years. The probe also found that Mars has no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic rays. The probe was able to calculate the atmospheric pressure on the planet to be about 0. 6 kPa (compared to Earth’s 101. 3 kPa), meaning that liquid water could not exist on the planet’s surface. 3] After Mariner 4, the search for life on Mars changed to a search for bacteria-like living organisms rather than for multicellular organisms, as the environment was clearly too harsh for these. Viking orbiters Liquid water is necessary for known life and metabolism, so if water was present on Mars, the chances of it having supported life may have been determinant. The Viking orbiters found evidence of possible river valleys in many areas, erosion and , in the southern hemisphere, branched streams. Viking experiments The primary mission of the Viking probes of the mid-1970s was to carry out experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil because the favorable conditions for the evolution of multicellular organisms ceased some four billion years ago on Mars. The tests were formulated to look for microbial life similar to that found on Earth. Of the four experiments, only the Labeled Release (LR) experiment returned a positive result, showing increased 14CO2 production on first exposure of soil to water and nutrients. All scientists agree on two points from the Viking missions: that radiolabeled 14CO2 was evolved in the Labeled Release experiment, and that the GC-MS detected no organic molecules. However, there are vastly different interpretations of what those results imply. The image taken by Viking probes resembling a human face caused many to speculate that it was the work of an extraterrestrial civilization. One of the designers of the Labeled Release experiment, Gilbert Levin, believes his results are a definitive diagnostic for life on Mars. However, this result is disputed by many scientists, who argue that superoxidant chemicals in the soil could have produced this effect without life being present. An almost general consensus discarded the Labeled Release data as evidence of life, because the gas chromatograph & mass spectrometer, designed to identify natural organic matter, did not detect organic molecules. The results of the Viking mission concerning life are considered by the general expert community, at best, as inconclusive. In 2007, during a Seminar of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution (Washington, D. C. , USA), Gilbert Levin’s investigation was assessed once more. Levin still maintains that his original data were correct, as the positive and negative control experiments were in order. Moreover, Levin’s team, on 12 April 2012, reported a statistical speculation, based on old data —reinterpreted mathematically through complexity analysis— of the Labeled Release experiments, that may suggest evidence of â€Å"extant microbial life on Mars. Critics counter that the method has not yet been proven effective for differentiating between biological and non-biological processes on Earth so it is premature to draw any conclusions. Ronald Paepe, an edaphologist (soil scientist), communicated to the European Geosciences Union Congress that the discovery of the recent detection of silicate minerals on Mars may indicate pedogenesis, or soil development processes, extended over the entire surface of Mars. Paepe’s interpretation views most of Mars surface as active soil, colored red by eons of widespread wearing by water, vegetation and microbial activity. A research team from the National Autonomous University of Mexico headed by Rafael Navarro-Gonzalez, concluded that the equipment (TV-GC-MS) used by the Viking program to search for organic molecules, may not be sensitive enough to detect low levels of organics. Because of the simplicity of sample handling, TV–GC–MS is still considered the standard method for organic detection on future Mars missions, so Navarro-Gonzalez suggests that the design of future organic instruments for Mars should include other methods of detection. Gillevinia straata The claim for life on Mars, in the form of Gillevinia straata, is based on old data reinterpreted as sufficient evidence of life, mainly by professors Gilbert Levin, Rafael Navarro-Gonzalez and Ronalds Paepe. The evidence supporting the existence of Gillevinia straata microorganisms relies on the data collected by the two Mars Viking landers that searched for biosignatures of life, but the analytical results were, officially, inconclusive. In 2006, Mario Crocco, a neurobiologist at the Neuropsychiatric Hospital Borda in Buenos Aires, Argentina, proposed the creation of a new nomenclatural rank that classified the Viking landers’ results as ‘metabolic’ and therefore belonging to a form of life. Crocco proposed to create new biological ranking categories (taxa), in the new kingdom system of life, in order to be able to accommodate the genus of Martian microorganisms. Crocco proposed the following taxonomical entry: * Organic life system: Solaria * Biosphere: Marciana Kingdom: Jakobia (named after neurobiologist Christfried Jakob) * Genus et species: Gillevinia straata As a result, the hypothetical Gillevinia straata would not be a bacterium (which rather is a terrestrial taxon), but a member of the kingdom ‘Jakobia’ in the biosphere ‘Marciana’ of the ‘Solaria’ system. The intended effect of the new nomenclature was to reverse the burden of proof concerning the life issue, but the taxonomy proposed by Crocco has not been accepted by the scientific community and is considered a single nomen nudum. Further, no Mars mission has found traces of biomolecules. Phoenix lander, 2008 The Phoenix mission landed a robotic spacecraft in the polar region of Mars on May 25, 2008 and it operated until November 10, 2008. One of the mission’s two primary objectives was to search for a â€Å"habitable zone† in the Martian regolith where microbial life could exist, the other main goal being to study the geological history of water on Mars. The lander has a 2. 5 meter robotic arm that was capable of digging shallow trenches in the regolith. There was an electrochemistry experiment which analysed the ions in the regolith and the amount and type of antioxidants on Mars. The Viking program data indicate that oxidants on Mars may vary with latitude, noting that Viking 2 saw fewer oxidants than Viking 1 in its more northerly position. Phoenix landed further north still. Phoenix’s preliminary data revealed that Mars soil contains perchlorate, and thus may not be as life-friendly as thought earlier. The pH and salinity level were viewed as benign from the standpoint of biology. The analysers also indicated the presence of bound water and CO2. Mars Science Laboratory Main articles: Mars Science Laboratory and Curiosity rover The Mars Science Laboratory mission is a NASA spacecraft launched on November 26, 2011 that deployed the Curiosity rover, a nuclear-powered robot bearing instruments designed to look for past or present conditions relevant to biological activity (planetary habitability). The Curiosity rover landed on Mars on Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater, near Aeolis Mons (a. k. a. Mount Sharp), on August 6, 2012. Future missions * ExoMars is a European-led multi-spacecraft programme currently under development by the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA for launch in 2016 and 2018. Its primary scientific mission will be to search for possible biosignatures on Mars, past or present. Two rovers with a 2 m core drill each will be used to sample various depths beneath the surface where liquid water may be found and where microorganisms might survive cosmic radiation. * Mars Sample Return Mission — The best life detection experiment proposed is the examination on Earth of a soil sample from Mars. However, the difficulty of providing and maintaining life support over the months of transit from Mars to Earth remains to be solved. Providing for still unknown environmental and nutritional requirements is daunting. Should dead organisms be found in a sample, it would be difficult to conclude that those organisms were alive when obtained. Meteorites NASA maintains a catalog of 34 Mars meteorites. These assets are highly valuable since they are the only physical samples available of Mars. Studies conducted by NASA’s Johnson Space Center show that at least three of the meteorites contain potential evidence of past life on Mars, in the form of microscopic structures resembling fossilized bacteria (so-called biomorphs). Although the scientific evidence collected is reliable, its interpretation varies. To date, none of the original lines of scientific evidence for the hypothesis that the biomorphs are of exobiological origin (the so-called biogenic hypothesis) have been either discredited or positively ascribed to non-biological explanations. Over the past few decades, seven criteria have been established for the recognition of past life within terrestrial geologic samples. Those criteria are: 1. Is the geologic context of the sample compatible with past life? 2. Is the age of the sample and its stratigraphic location compatible with possible life? 3. Does the sample contain evidence of cellular morphology and colonies? 4.  Is there any evidence of biominerals showing chemical or mineral disequilibria? 5. Is there any evidence of stable isotope patterns unique to biology? 6. Are there any organic biomarkers present? 7. Are the features indigenous to the sample? For general acceptance of past life in a geologic sample, essentially most or all of these criteria must be met. All seven criteria have not yet been met for any of the Martian samples, but continued investigations are in progress. As of 2010, reexaminations of the biomorphs found in the three Martian meteorites are underway with more advanced analytical instruments than previously available. The scientists conducting the study at Johnson Space Center believed that before the end of the year they would find in the meteorites definitive evidence for past life on Mars. ALH84001 meteorite The ALH84001 meteorite was found in December 1984 in Antarctica, by members of the ANSMET project; the meteorite weighs 1. 93 kilograms (4. 3 lb). The sample was ejected from Mars about 17 million years ago and spent 11,000 years in or on the Antarctic ice sheets. Composition analysis by NASA revealed a kind of magnetite that on Earth, is only found in association with certain microorganisms. Then, in August 2002, another NASA team led by Thomas-Keptra published a study indicating that 25% of the magnetite in ALH 84001 occurs as small, uniform-sized crystals that, on Earth, is associated only with biologic activity, and that the remainder of the material appears to be normal inorganic magnetite. The extraction technique did not permit determination as to whether the possibly biological magnetite was organized into chains as would be expected. The meteorite displays indication of relatively low temperature secondary mineralization by water and shows evidence of preterrestrial aqueous alteration. Evidence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been identified with the levels increasing away from the surface. Some structures resembling the mineralized casts of terrestrial bacteria and their appendages (fibrils) or by-products (extracellular polymeric substances) occur in the rims of carbonate globules and preterrestrial aqueous alteration regions. The size and shape of the objects is consistent with Earthly fossilized nanobacteria, but the existence of nanobacteria itself is controversial. In November 2009, NASA scientists said that a recent, more detailed analysis showed that the meteorite â€Å"contains strong evidence that life may have existed on ancient Mars†. Nakhla Meteorite The Nakhla meteorite fell on Earth on June 28, 1911 on the locality of Nakhla, Alexandria, Egypt. In 1998, a team from NASA’s Johnson Space Center obtained a small sample for analysis. Researchers found preterrestrial aqueous alteration phases and objects of the size and shape consistent with Earthly fossilized nanobacteria, but the existence of nanobacteria itself is controversial. Analysis with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) studied its high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in 2000, and NASA scientists concluded that as much as 75% of the organic matter in Nakhla â€Å"may not be recent terrestrial contamination†. This caused additional interest in this meteorite, so in 2006, NASA managed to obtain an additional and larger sample from the London Natural History Museum. On this second sample, a large dendritic carbon content was observed. When the results and evidence were published on 2006, some independent researchers claimed that the carbon deposits are of biologic origin. However, it was remarked that since carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the Universe, finding it in curious patterns is not indicative or suggestive of biological origin. Shergotty meteorite The Shergotty meteorite, a 4 kg Martian meteorite, fell on Earth on Shergotty, India on August 25, 1865 and was retrieved by witnesses almost immediately. [45] This meteorite is relatively young, calculated to have been formed on Mars only 165 million years ago from volcanic origin. It is composed mostly of pyroxene and thought to have undergone preterrestrial aqueous alteration for several centuries. Certain features in its interior suggest to be remnants of biofilm and their associated microbial communities. [33] Work is in progress on searching for magnetites within alteration phases. Liquid water No Mars probe since Viking has tested the Martian regolith specifically for metabolism which is the ultimate sign of current life. NASA’s recent missions have focused on another question: whether Mars held lakes or oceans of liquid water on its surface in the ancient past. Scientists have found hematite, a mineral that forms in the presence of water. Thus, the mission of the Mars Exploration Rovers of 2004 was not to look for present or past life, but for evidence of liquid water on the surface of Mars in the planet’s ancient past. Liquid water, necessary for Earth life and for metabolism as generally conducted by species on Earth, cannot exist on the surface of Mars under its present low atmospheric pressure and temperature, except at the lowest shaded elevations for short periods and liquid water does not appear at the surface itself. In June 2000, evidence for water currently under the surface of Mars was discovered in the form of flood-like gullies. Deep subsurface water deposits near the planet’s liquid core might form a present-day habitat for life. However, in March 2006, astronomers announced the discovery of similar gullies on the Moon, which is believed never to have had liquid water on its surface. The astronomers suggest that the gullies could be the result of micrometeorite impacts. In March 2004, NASA announced that its rover Opportunity had discovered evidence that Mars was, in the ancient past, a wet planet. This had raised hopes that evidence of past life might be found on the planet today. ESA confirmed that the Mars Express orbiter had directly detected huge reserves of water ice at Mars’ south pole in January 2004. On July 28, 2005, ESA announced that they had recorded photographic evidence of surface water ice near Mars’ North pole. In December 2006, NASA showed images taken by the Mars Global Surveyor that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars. The images did not actually show flowing water. Rather, they showed changes in craters and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water oursed through them as recently as several years ago, and is perhaps doing so even now. Some researchers were skeptical that liquid water was responsible for the surface feature changes seen by the spacecraft. They said other materials such as sand or dust can flow like a liquid and produce similar results. Recent analysis of Martian sandstones, using data obtained from orbital spectrometry, suggests that the waters that previously existed on the surface of Mars would have had too high a salinity to support most Earth-like life. Tosca et al. found that the Martian water in the locations they studied all had water activity, aw ? . 78 to 0. 86—a level fatal to most Terrestrial life. Haloarchaea, however, are able to live in hypersaline solutions, up to the saturation point. The Phoenix Mars lander from NASA, which landed in the Mars Arctic plain in May 2008, confirmed the presence of frozen water near the surface. This was confirmed when bright material, exposed by the digging arm of the lander, was found to have vaporized and disappeared in 3 to 4 days. This has been attributed to sub-surface ice, exposed by the digging and sublimated on exposure to the atmosphere. Methane Trace amounts of methane in the atmosphere of Mars were discovered in 2003 and verified in 2004. As methane is an unstable gas, its presence indicates that there must be an active source on the planet in order to keep such levels in the atmosphere. It is estimated that Mars must produce 270 ton/year of methane, but asteroid impacts account for only 0. 8% of the total methane production. Although geologic sources of methane such as serpentinization are possible, the lack of current volcanism, hydrothermal activity or hotspots are not favorable for geologic methane. It has been suggested that the methane was produced by chemical reactions in meteorites, driven by the intense heat during entry through the atmosphere. Although research published in December 2009 ruled out this possibility, research published in 2012 suggest that a source may be organic compounds on meteorites that are converted to methane by ultraviolet radiation. The existence of life in the form of microorganisms such as methanogens is among possible, but as yet unproven sources. If microscopic Martian life is producing the methane, it likely resides far below the surface, where it is still warm enough for liquid water to exist. Since the 2003 discovery of methane in the atmosphere, some scientists have been designing models and in vitro experiments testing growth of methanogenic bacteria on simulated Martian soil, where all four methanogen strains tested produced substantial levels of methane, even in the presence of 1. 0wt% perchlorate salt. The results reported indicate that the perchlorates discovered by the Phoenix Lander would not rule out the possible presence of methanogens on Mars. A team led by Levin suggested that both phenomena—methane production and degradation—could be accounted for by an ecology of methane-producing and methane-consuming microorganisms. In June 2012, scientists reported that measuring the ratio of hydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, â€Å"†¦ low H2/CH4 ratios (less than approximately 40) indicate that life is likely present and active. † Other scientists have recently reported methods of detecting hydrogen and methane in extraterrestrial atmospheres. Formaldehyde In February 2005, it was announced that the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) on the European Space Agency’s Mars Express Orbiter, detected traces of formaldehyde in the atmosphere of Mars. Vittorio Formisano, the director of the PFS, has speculated that the formaldehyde could be the byproduct of the oxidation of methane, and according to him, would provide evidence that Mars is either extremely geologically active, or harbouring colonies of microbial life. NASA scientists consider the preliminary findings are well worth a follow-up, but have also rejected the claims of life. Silica In May 2007, the Spirit rover disturbed a patch of ground with its inoperative wheel, uncovering an area extremely rich in silica (90%). The feature is reminiscent of the effect of hot spring water or steam coming into contact with volcanic rocks. Scientists consider this as evidence of a past environment that may have been favorable for microbial life, and theorize that one possible origin for the silica may have been produced by the interaction of soil with acid vapors produced by volcanic activity in the presence of water. Another possible origin could have been from water in a hot spring environment. Based on Earth analogs, hydrothermal systems on Mars would be highly attractive for their potential for preserving organic and inorganic biosignatures. For example, iron oxidizing bacteria are abundant in marine and terrestrial hydrothermal systems, where they often display distinctive cell morphologies and are commonly encrusted by minerals, especially bacteriogenic iron oxides and silica. Microfossils of iron oxidizing bacteria have been found in ancient Si-Fe deposits and iron oxidation may be an ancient and widespread metabolic pathway. 83] If possible, future rover missions will target extinct hydrothermal vent systems on Mars. Geysers on Mars The seasonal frosting and defrosting of the southern ice cap results in the formation of spider-like radial channels carved on 1 meter thick ice by sunlight. Then, sublimed CO2 – and probably water –increase pressure in their interior producing geyser-like eruptions of cold fluids often mixed with dark basaltic sand or mud. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars. A team of Hungarian scientists proposes that the geysers’ most visible features, dark dune spots and spider channels, may be colonies of photosynthetic Martian microorganisms, which over-winter beneath the ice cap, and as the sunlight returns to the pole during early spring, light penetrates the ice, the microorganisms photosynthesize and heat their immediate surroundings. A pocket of liquid water, which would normally evaporate instantly in the thin Martian atmosphere, is trapped around them by the overlying ice. As this ice layer thins, the microorganisms show through grey. When the layer has completely melted, the microorganisms rapidly desiccate and turn black, surrounded by a grey aureole. The Hungarian scientists believe that even a complex sublimation process is insufficient to explain the formation and evolution of the dark dune spots in space and time. Since their discovery, fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke promoted these formations as deserving of study from an astrobiological perspective. A multinational European team suggests that if liquid water is present in the spiders’ channels during their annual defrost cycle, they might provide a niche where certain microscopic life forms could have retreated and adapted while sheltered from solar radiation. A British team also considers the possibility that organic matter, microbes, or even simple plants might co-exist with these inorganic formations, especially if the mechanism includes liquid water and a geothermal energy source. However, they also remark that the majority of geological structures may be accounted for without invoking any organic â€Å"life on Mars† hypothesis. It has been proposed to develop the Mars Geyser Hopper lander to study the geysers up close. Cosmic radiation In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe discovered that Mars had no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic radiation and solar radiation; observations made in the late 1990s by the Mars Global Surveyor confirmed this discovery. Scientists speculate that the lack of magnetic shielding helped the solar wind blow away much of Mars’s atmosphere over the course of several billion years. After mapping cosmic radiation levels at various depths on Mars, researchers have concluded that any life within the first several meters of the planet’s surface would be killed by lethal doses of cosmic radiation. In 2007, it was calculated that DNA and RNA damage by cosmic radiation would limit life on Mars to depths greater than 7. 5 metres below the planet’s surface. Therefore, the best potential locations for discovering life on Mars may be at subsurface environments that have not been studied yet.